1945 Poland HOLOCAUST Atrocities PHOTO BOOK Lodz \"EXTERMINATION of POLISH JEWS\" For Sale

DESCRIPTION : Up for sale is what very rightly considered to be one of the best and most important ( If not the best ) HISTORY - EDUCATIONAL documentaryPHOTOGRAPHED ALBUM regarding the HOLOCAUST which was published ( First and only edition ) in 1945 in LODZ POLAND , Right after the WW2 end , Whenthe HOLOCAUST crimes were revealed , by \"THE CENTRAL JEWISH HISTORICAL COMMITTEE in POLAND\" ( “Centralna Zydowska KonisjaHistoryczna W Polsce” ) , Being one of the FIRST official publication , Attempting to DOCUMENTand make EVIDENT the HOLOCAUST horrors . The ALBUM was named\"EXTERMINATION OF THE POLISH JEWS - ALBUM OF PICTURES\" . The explanatory text and the detailed captures are written in SIX LANGUAGES : Polish , Hebrew, Yiddish , Russian , English , French. This most thrilling and shocking PHOTO ALBUM is very rightly considered asone of the single most important documentary photo books on the Holocaust everpublished, this book became the defining collection of photographic images fromthe period. Illustrated with 252 b/w photographic reproductions documenting thedebasement and destruction of European Jewry, with pictures of cities, ghettosand the camps. This multilingual photographic album was published in Poland afew months after the end of World War II when relatively little was known onthe magnitude of the genocide perpetrated upon the European Jews. In additionto a short introduction, the 252 photographs contain shocking footage from theJewish settlements at the onset of German occupation, the ghettos into whichthey were later crowded, and finally, photographs of the atrocities committedin the forced labor camps and the extermination camps. Another section of thebook is dedicated to the Jewish partisan movements. The photographs were mostlytaken as mementos by German soldiers, and are still as shocking today as theywere in 1945. Probably the single most important documentary photo book on the Holocaust everpublished, useful not only as part of the documentary record, but also as partof the historiography of the Holocaust, since this book became the definingcollection of photographic images from the period, not only for European Jews,but also for the world at large (especially Europe). In was published in 1945by survivors with memories still fresh and a need to document what they andtheir communities had gone through. 252 black and white photos, showing theJewish settlements at the onset of German occupation, the ghettos into which theywere later crowded, and finally photographs of the atrocities committed in theforced labor camps and the extermination camps. Another section of the book isdedicated to the Jewish partisan movements. Around 250 authentic PHOTOGRAPHS ,Printed on separate chromoleaves . Original impressive black wrappers.Dramatic white headings. 7 x9.5 \" .104 chromo PHOTOS PP. Around 40 explantory text PP ( in 6 languages ) . Condition - Very good condition . Please note - The very few surviving copies of this thrilling album are usualy damaged , rebound etc. This copy is in a very rare good condition, Still in its original wrappers , Tightly bound and very clean condition ( Except for vey minor foxing of only a few leaves ) . Being held in a private collection . ( Pls look at scan for accurate AS IS images ) . Bookwill be sent extremely well packed inside a protective rigid envelope .

AUTHENTICITY :ThisistheORIGINALvintage1945 FIRST and ONLY edition ( Dated ), NOT a recent editionor a reprint, It holds a life long GUARANTEE for its AUTHENTICITY and ORIGINALITY.

PAYMENTS: Payment method accepted : Paypal .SHIPPMENT: Shipp worldwide via registered airmail is FREE .( Can not be mailed to certain European countriesGermany,Austria, Italy, or FrancePlease watch instructions or contact me for details ).Bookwill be sent extremely well packed inside a protective rigid envelope . Handling within 3-5 days afterpayment. Estimated Int\'l duration around 14 days.

MORE DETAILS :The Holocaust in German-occupied Polandwas the last and the most lethal phase of the Nazi \"Final Solution of the Jewish Question\" (Endlösung der Judenfrage) marked by the construction of death camps on German-occupied Polish soil. Thegenocideofficially sanctioned and executed by theThird ReichduringWorld War II, collectively known asthe Holocaust, took the lives of more than three millionPolish Jews. The extermination camps played a central role in the implementation of the German policy of systematic and mostly successful destruction of over 90% of thePolish-Jewish populationof theSecond Polish Republic.[6]Every arm of the sophisticated German bureaucracy was involved in the killing process, from the Interior Ministry and the Finance Ministry; to German firms andstate-run trainsused for deportation of Jews.[7][8]German companies offer for the contracts to build the crematoria inconcentration campsrun byNazi Germanyin theGeneral Governmentas well as in other parts of occupied Poland and beyond.[6][9]Throughout the German occupation, at great risk to themselves and their families, many ChristianPolessucceeded in rescuing Jews from the Nazis. Grouped by nationality, Polish rescuers represent the biggest number of people who saved Jews during the Holocaust.[5][10]Already recognized by the State ofIsrael, thePolish Righteous Among the Nationsinclude 6,706 gentiles, more than any other nation.[10]A very small percentage ofPolish Jewsmanaged to survive World War II within theGerman-occupied Polandor successfully escaped east beyond the reach of theNazisinto theterritories of Poland annexed by the Soviet Union,[11]only to be deported to camps in Siberia along with the families of up to 1 million Polish non-Jews.[12][13]Contents[hide]1 Background2 Nazi ghettoization policy2.1 The Holocaust by bullets3 Final Solution and liquidation of Ghettos3.1 The \"resettlement\" program3.2 Death camp at Chełmno3.3 Auschwitz-Birkenau3.4 Treblinka3.5 Bełżec3.6 Sobibór3.7 Lublin-Majdanek4 Armed resistance and ghetto uprisings5 Poles and the Jews5.1 Difficulties in rescue attempts5.2 Role of national minorities6 Rate of survival7 Holocaust memorials and commemoration8 See also9 Footnotes10 References11 External linksBackground[edit]Main articles:Occupation of Poland (1939–45),Nazi crimes against the Polish nation,War crimes in occupied Poland during World WarII, andExtermination through labourFollowing the 1939invasion of Polandin accordance with the secret protocol of theMolotov–Ribbentrop Pact,[14]Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned Poland intooccupation zones. Largeareas of western Poland were annexedby Germany.[15]The Soviets tricked the Poles into believing that they crossed the border to help Poland fight Germany; and subsequently took over some 51.6% of the territory of theSecond Polish Republicwith fewer military losses.[16]The entireKresymacroregion– inhabited by about 13,200,000 people – was annexed by the Soviet Union in the atmosphere of terror surrounding amock referendumstaged by thesecret policeand the Red Army.[17]Within months, thePolish Jewsin the Soviet-occupied zone, who refused to swear an oath of allegiance, were deported to Siberia along with the Catholics. Their number is estimated at about 200,000 men, women and children among those who survived in the most extreme conditions.[18]Both occupying powers were equally hostile to the existence of sovereign Polish state, and endorsed the policy of genocide.[19]However, the Soviet rule was short-lived because the terms of theNazi–Soviet Pactsigned earlier in Moscow were broken, when theGerman armycrossed theSoviet occupation zoneon June 22, 1941(see map). From 1941 to 1943 all of Poland was under the control of Nazi Germany.[20]The semi-colonial territory of theGeneral Government, set up in central and south-eastern Poland, took up 39 percent of the occupied area.[21]Nazi ghettoization policy[edit]Further information:Jewish ghettos in German-occupied PolandandIntelligenzaktionPrior to World War II, there were 3,500,000 Jews in Poland, living predominantly in the cities; about 10% of the general population. Database of thePOLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jewsprovides information on 1,926 Jewish communities across the country.[22]Following the conquest of Poland, the first German anti-Jewish measures involved the policy of expulsion of Jews from theterritories annexed by the Third Reich. The westernmost provinces ofGreater PolandandPomereliawere turned into brand new GermanReichsgauenamedDanzig-West Prussiaand theWartheland,[23]with the intention of their completeGermanizationthrough settler colonialism (Lebensraum).[24]Annexed directly to the newWarthegaudistrict, the city ofŁódźabsorbed the influx of some 40,000 Polish Jews forced out from the surrounding areas.[25]A total of 204,000 Jewish people passed through theghetto in Łódź. Initially, they were to be expelled to theGeneralgouvernement.[26][27]However, the ultimate destination of the massive removal of Jews was left open until theFinal Solutionwas set in motion two years later.[28]\"The Mass Extermination of Jews in German Occupied Poland\", by thePolish government-in-exileaddressed to thewartime alliesof the then-United Nations, 1942Persecution of Polish Jews by the German occupation authority began immediately after the invasion particularly in major urban areas. In the first year and a half, the Nazis confined themselves to stripping the Jews of their valuables and property for profit,[6]herding them into makeshift ghettos, and forcing them intoslave labor in war-related industries. During this period, the Germans ordered Jewish communities to appoint Jewish Councils (Judenräte) to administer the ghettos and to be \"responsible in the strictest sense\" for carrying out orders.[29]Most ghettos were set up in cities and towns where Jewish life was well organized. For logistical reasons, the Jewish communities in settlements without railway connections in occupied Poland were dissolved.[30]In a massive deportation action involving the use offreight trains, all Polish Jews had been segregated from the rest of society indilapidated neighborhoods(Jüdischer Wohnbezirk) adjacent to the existing rail corridors.[31]The food aid was completely dependent on theSS.[32]Initially, the Jews were legally banned from baking bread;[33]they were sealed off from the general public in an unsustainable manner.[32]TheWarsaw ghettocontained more Jews than all of France; theŁódź Ghettomore Jews than all of the Netherlands. More Jews lived in thecity of Krakówthan in all of Italy, and virtually any medium-sized town in Poland had a larger Jewish population than all of Scandinavia. All of southeast Europe – Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, and Greece – had fewer Jews than the original four districts of theGeneral Government.[34]The plight of Jews in war-torn Poland could be divided into stages defined by theexistence of the ghettos. Before their formation,[35]the escape from persecution did not involve extrajudicial punishment by death.[36]Once the ghettos were sealed off from the outside, death by starvation and disease became rampant, alleviated only by the smuggling of food and medicine, described byRingelblumas \"one of the finest pages in the history between the two peoples\".[36]In Warsaw, up to 80 percent of food consumed inthe Ghettowas brought in illegally. The food stamps introduced by the Germans, provided 9 percent of the calories necessary for survival.[37]In two and a half years some 100,000 Jews died in Warsaw of starvation and disease; inŁódź, around 40,000. By the end of 1941, most ghettoized Jews had no savings left to pay theSSfor further bulk food deliveries.[37]The \'productionists\' among the German authorities – who attempted to make the ghettos self-sustaining by turning them into enterprises – prevailed over the \'attritionists\' only after the German attack on the Soviet positions ineastern Poland, codenamedOperation Barbarossa.[38]The most prominent ghettos were stabilized through the production of goods neededat the front,[32]and death rates among the Jewish population began to decline (at least temporarily).[38]The Holocaust by bullets[edit]Bodies of Jews from theTarnopol Voivodeshipshot face down in an open pit nearZłoczówFollowing the German attack on the USSR in June 1941,Himmlerassembled a force of about 11,000 men to pursue a programme of physical annihilation of the Jews for the first time.[39]Also, during Operation Barbarossa, theSShad recruitedcollaborationist auxiliary policefrom among Soviet nationals.[1][40]In what became known as the Holocaust by bullets, theGerman police battalions(Orpo),SiPo,Waffen-SSand special-taskEinsatzgruppenalong with the Ukrainian and Lithuanianauxiliaries, operated behind the front lines systematically shooting tens of thousands of men, women and children independently of the army.[41]Massacres were committed in over 30 locations across formerly Soviet-occupied parts of Poland,[42]including inBrześć,Tarnopol, andBiałystok, as well as in prewar provincial capitals ofŁuck,Lwów,Stanisławów, andWilno(seePonary).[43]The survivors of mass killing operations were incarcerated in the new ghettos of economic exploitation,[21]and starved slowly to death byartificial famineat the whim of German authorities.[44]Because of sanitation concerns, the corpses of people who had died as a result of starvation and mistreatment were buried in mass graves in the tens of thousands.[45]Gas vans were made available in November 1941.[46]By December, between 500,000 and 800,000 Jewish people from Poland and the Soviet Union had already perished behind theGerman–Soviet Frontier(at a rate of 2,700 to 4,200 per day), and entire regions werereported\"Judenfrei\".[47]Final Solution and liquidation of Ghettos[edit]Further information:Final SolutionandGerman camps in occupied Poland during World War IIOn January 20, 1942, during theWannsee conferencenear Berlin, State Secretary of the Government General,Josef Bühler, urgedReinhard Heydrichto begin the proposed \"final solutionto the Jewish question\" as soon as possible.[48]The industrial killing by exhaust fumes was already tried and tested over several weeks at theChełmno extermination campin thethen-Wartheland, under the guise of resettlement.[49]All condemned Ghetto prisoners, without exception, were told they were going to labour camps, and asked to pack a carry-on luggage.[50]Many Jews believed in the transfer ruse, since deportations were also part of the ghettoization process.[5]Meanwhile, the idea of mass murder by means of stationary gas chambers was discussedin Lublinalready since September 1941. It was a precondition for the newly draftedOperation Reinhardled byOdilo Globocnikwho ordered the construction of death camps atBelzec,Sobibór, the work of the stationary gas chambers began in March and May respectively, preceded by experiments withZyklon B.[51]Between 1942 and 1944, the most extreme measure of theHolocaust, the extermination of millions of Jews from Poland and all over Europe was carried out in sixextermination camps. There were no Polish guards at any of the camps, despite the sometimes used misnomerPolish death camps. All killing centres were designed and operated by the Nazis in strict secrecy.[52]Civilians were forofferden to approach them and often killed if caught near the train tracks.[53]Entrance to Camp I atAuschwitz(top) with the sign on the gate readingArbeit macht frei, compared with the realdeath factorynearby (bottom) at AuschwitzII-BirkenauSystematic liquidation of the ghettos began acrossGeneral Governmentin the early spring of 1942. At that point the only chance for survival was the escape into the \"Aryan side\". The German round-ups for the so-calledresettlement trainswere connected directly with the use of top secret extermination facilities built for theSSat about the same time by various German engineering companies including HAHB,[54]I.A. Topf and SonsofErfurt, and C.H. Kori GmbH.[55][56][57]Unlike otherNazi concentration campswhere prisoners from all across Europe were exploited for the war effort, Germandeath camps– part of secretiveOperation Reinhardt– were designed exclusively for the rapid elimination of Polish and foreign Jews, subsisting in isolation. The camp\'s German overseers reported toHeinrich HimmlerinBerlin, who kept control of the extermination program, but who has delegated the work in Poland to SS and police chiefOdilo Globocnikof theLublin Reservation.[58]The selection of sites, construction of facilities and training of personnel was based on a similar (Action T4) \"racial hygiene\" program of mass murder through involuntary euthanasia, developed in Germany.[59][60]The \"resettlement\" program[edit]The scale of theFinal Solutionwould not have been possible without theReichsbahn.[61]The extermination of Polish and foreign Jews depended on the railways as much as on the secluded killing centres. TheHolocaust trainssped up the scale and duration over which the extermination took place; and, the enclosed nature offreight carsalso reduced the number of troops required to guard them. Rail shipments allowed the Nazi Germans to build and operate bigger and more efficient death camps and, at the same time, openly lie to the world – and to their victims – about a \"resettlement\" program.[7][62]In one telephone conversationHeinrich HimmlerinformedMartin Bormannabout the Jews already exterminated in Poland, to which Bormann screamed in response: \"They were not exterminated, only evacuated, evacuated, evacuated!\"[63]Liquidation of theKraków Ghetto. Families walk toProkocimrailway station for the \"resettlement\". Point of destination: Auschwitz, March 1943Unspecified number of deportees died in transit duringOperation Reinhardfrom suffocation and thirst. No food or water was supplied. TheGüterwagenboxcars were only fitted with a bucketlatrine. A small barred window provided little ventilation, which oftentimes resulted in multiple deaths.[64]Millions of people were transported in suchtrainsetsto the extermination camps under the direction of the German Ministry of Transport, and tracked byan IBM subsidiary, until the official date of closing of the Auschwitz-Birkenau complex in December 1944.[65][66]Death factories were just one of a number of ways of mass extermination. There were secluded killing sites set up further east. AtBronna Góra50,000 Jews died over execution pits; delivered by the Holocaust trains fromthe ghettosinBrześć,Bereza,Janów Poleski,Kobryń,Horodec (pl),Antopoland other locations along the western border ofReichskommissariat Ostland.[67][68][69]At the Sosenki Forest on the outskirts ofRównein prewarWołyń Voivodeship, over 23,000 Jews were shot, men, women, and children.[70]At the Górka Połonka forest(see map)25,000 Jews forced to disrobe and lay over the bodies of others were shot in waves; most of them were delivered there via theŁuck Ghetto.[71][72]While the Order Police performed liquidations of theJewish ghettos in German-occupied Poland, loading Jews onto railcars and shooting those unable to move or attempting to flee, thecollaborationist auxiliary policewere used as a means of inflicting terror by conducting large-scale massacres in those places.[73][74]They were deployed in all major killing sites of Operation Reinhard (terror was their primary purpose of training). The UkrainianTrawnikistook an active role in the extermination of Jews at Belzec, Sobibór, Treblinka II, during theWarsaw Ghetto Uprising(on three occasions, seeStroop the Trawniki concentration camp itself,[1]and the remaining subcamps of KL Lublin/Majdanek camp complex includingPoniatowa,Budzyń, Kraśnik,Puławy, Lipowa, and also during massacres all other locations, augmented by members of theSS, as well as thereserve police battalionsfromOrpo(each, responsible for annihilation of thousands of Jews). Mass executions of Jews (as inSzebnie) was part of regular training of theUkrainianWaffen-SSDivisionsoldiers from theSS-Heidelagertroop-trainingbase inPustkówin south-eastern Poland.[75][76]In the north-east,the \"Poachers\' Brigade\"ofOskar DirlewangertrainedBelarusian Home Guardin murder expeditions with the help ofBelarusian Auxiliary Police.[77]By theend of World War II in Europein May 1945, over 90% of Polish Jewry perished.[5]Only about 50,000–120,000 Jews survived the war on Polish soil, out of Poland\'s prewar Jewish population of 3,500,000.[5]Death camp at Chełmno[edit]Jews delivered to Chełmno death camp were forced to abandon their bundles along the way. In this photo, loading of victims sent from theghetto in Łódź(1942)TheChełmno extermination camp(Kulmhof) was built as the first-ever, following Hitler\'s launch ofOperation Barbarossa. It was a pilot project for the development of other extermination sites. The experiments with exhaust gases were finalized by murdering 1,500 Poles atSoldau.[78]The killing method at Chełmno grew out of the\'euthanasia\'program in which busloads of unsuspecting hospital patients were gassed in air-tight shower rooms killing grounds at Chełmno, 50 kilometres (31mi) fromŁódź, consisted of a vacated manorial estate similar to Sonnenstein, used for undressing (with a truck-loading ramp in the back), as well as a large forest clearing 4 kilometres (2.5mi) northwest of Chełmno, used for the mass burial as well as open-pit cremation of corpses introduced some time later.[80]All Jews from theJudenfreidistrict ofWarthelandwere deported to Chełmno under the guise of \'resettlement\'. At least 145,000 prisoners from theŁódź Ghettoperished at Chełmno in several waves of deportations lasting from 1942 to 1944.[81][82]Additionally, 20,000 foreign Jews and 5,000 Roma were brought in from Germany, Austria and Czechoslovakia.[83]All victims were killed with the use of mobilegas vans(Sonderwagen), which had exhaust pipes reconfigured and poisons added to gasoline (seeChełmno Trialsfor supplementary data). The exhumed bodies were cremated in open-air for several weeks in the last period of the camp\'s existence. DuringSonderaktion 1005, the ashes, mixed with crushed bones, were trucked every night to thenearby riverin sacks made from blankets, to remove the evidence of mass II Birkenau prisonersTheAuschwitz concentration campwas the largest of the German Nazi extermination centers. Located 64 kilometres (40mi) west ofKraków,[86]Auschwitz processed an average of 1.5Holocaust trainsper day.[63]Overwhelming majority of prisoners deported there were murdered within hours of their arrival.[87]The camp was fitted with the first permanentgas chambersin March 1942. The extermination of Jews withZyklon Bas the killing agent began in July.[88]At Birkenau, the four killing installations (each consisting of coatrooms, multiple gas chambers andindustrial-scale crematoria) were built in the following year.[89]By late 1943, Birkenau was a killing factory with four so-called \'Bunkers\' (totaling over a dozen gas chambers) working around the clock.[90]Up to 6,000 people were gassed and cremated there each day,[91]after the ruthless \'selection process\' at theJudenrampe.[92]Only about 10 percent of the deportees from transports organized by the Reich Main Security Office (RSHA) were registered and assigned to the Birkenau barracks.[92]Auschwitz II extermination program resulted in the death of 1.3 to 1.5 million people.[93]Over 1.1 million of them were Jews from across Europe including 200,000 children.[87][94]Among the registered 400,000 victims (less than one-third of the total Auschwitz arrivals) were 140,000–150,000 non-Jewish Poles, 23,000 Gypsies, 15,000 SovietPOWsand 25,000 others.[93][95]Auschwitz received about 300,000 Jews from occupied Poland,[96]shippedaboard freight trainsfrom liquidated ghettos and transit camps,[97]beginning withBytom(February 15, 1942),Olkusz(three days of June),Otwock(in 13, 1943),[100]and several dozen other metropolitan cities and towns,[22]including the last ghetto left standing in occupied Poland, liquidated in August 1944 atŁódź.[101]Auschwitz-Birkenau gas chambers and crematoria were blown up on November 25, 1944, in an attempt to destroy the evidence of mass killings, by the orders of SS chief Heinrich Himmler.[102]Treblinka[edit]Treblinka II burning during the prisoner uprising, 2 August 1943: barracks and tank of petrol set ablaze. Clandestine photograph was taken byFranciszek Ząbecki.Designed and built for the sole purpose of killing people,Treblinkawas one of only three such facilities in existence; the other two were Bełżec and Sobibór. All of them were situated in wooded areas away from population centres and linked to the Polish rail system by abranch line. They had transferableSSstaff.[103]There was a railway platform constructed alongside the tracks, surrounded by an 2.5m (8ft) high barbed-wire fencing. Large barracks were built for storing belongings of disembarking victims. One was disguised as arailway stationcomplete with a fake wooden clock and signage to prevent new arrivals from realizing their fate.[104]Passports and money were collected for \"safekeeping\" at a cashier\'s booth set up by the \"Road to Heaven\", a fenced-off path leading into the gas chambers disguised as communal showers. Directly behind were the burial pits, dug with a crawler excavator.[105]Located 80 kilometres (50mi) northeast ofWarsaw,[106]Treblinka became operational on July 24, 1942, after three months offorced labour constructionby expellees from Germany.[107]The shipping of Jews from thePolish capital– plan known as theGroßaktion Warschau– began immediately.[108][109][110]During the two months of the summer of 1942, about 254,000Warsaw Ghettoinmates were exterminated at Treblinka (by some other accounts, at least 300,000).[111]On arrival, the transportees were made to disrobe, then the men – followed by women and children – were forced into double-walled chambers and gassed to death in batches of 200, with the use of exhaust fumes generated by a tank engine.[112][113][114]The gas chambers, rebuilt of brick and expanded during August–September 1942, were capable if killing 12,000 to 15,000 victims every day,[115]with a maximum capacity of 22,000 executions in twenty-four hours.[116]The dead were initially buried in large mass graves, but the stench from the decomposing bodies could be smelled up to ten kilometers away. As a result, the Nazis began burning the bodies on open-air grids made of concrete pillars and railway tracks.[117]The number of people killed at Treblinka in about a year ranges from 800,000 to 1,200,000, with no exact figures available.[118][119]The camp was closed by Globocnik on October 19, 1943 soon after theTreblinka prisoner uprising,[120]with the murderous Operation Reinhard nearly completed.[118]Bełżec[edit]TheSS Death-Head UnitfromBełżec extermination camp, 1942TheBełżec extermination camp, set up near the railroad station of Bełżec in theLublin District, began operating officially on March 17, 1942, with three temporary gas chambers later replaced with six made of brick and mortar, enabling the facility to handle over 1,000 victims at one time.[121]At least 434,500 Jews were exterminated there. The lack of verified survivors however, makes this camp much less known.[122]The bodies of the dead, buried in mass graves, swelled in the heat as a result ofputrefactionmaking the earth split, which was resolved with the introduction of crematoria pits in October 1942.[123]Kurt GersteinfromWaffen-SS, supplyingZyklon BfromDegeschduring the Holocaust,[124]wrote after the war in hisGerstein Reportforthe Alliesthat on August 17, 1942 atBelzec, he had witnessed the arrival of 45 wagons with 6,700 prisoners of whom 1,450 were already dead inside.[125]That train came with the Jewish people of theLwów Ghetto,[126]less than a hundred kilometers away.[127]The last shipment of Jews (including those who had already died in transit) arrived in Bełżec in December 1942.[128]The burning of exhumed corpses continued until March.[129]The remaining 500Sonderkommandoprisoners who dismantled the camp, and who bore witness to the extermination process,[122]were murdered at the nearbySobibór extermination campin the following months.[130][131]Sobibór[edit]Top secret document, the so-calledHöfle Telegram, confirms at least 101,370 Jewishtrain deportationstoSobiborin 1942.TheSobibór extermination camp, disguised as a railway transit camp not far fromLublin, began mass gassing operations in May 1942.[132]As in other extermination centers, the Jews, taken off the Holocaust trains arriving from liquidated ghettos and transit camps (Izbica,Końskowola) were met by an SS-man dressed in a medical coat.OberscharführerHermann Michel gave the command for prisoners\' \"disinfection\".[133]New arrivals were forced to split into groups, hand over their valuables, and disrobe inside a walled-off courtyard for a bath. Women had their hair cut off by theSonderkommandobarbers. Once undressed, the Jews were led down a narrow path to the gas chambers which were disguised as showers. Carbon monoxide gas was released from the exhaust pipes of a gasoline engine removed from a Red Army tank.[134]Their bodies were taken out and burned in open pits over iron grids partly fueled by human body-fat. Their remains were dumped onto seven \"ash mountains\". The total number of Polish Jews murdered at Sobibór is estimated at a minimum of 170,000.[135]Heinrich Himmler ordered the camp dismantled following aprisoner revolton October 14, 1943; one of only two successful uprisings by JewishSonderkommandoinmates in a Nazi extermination camp, with 300 escapees (most of them were recaptured by the SS and ovens inside the crematorium on display at theMajdanek State MuseumTheMajdanekforced laborcamp located on the outskirts of Lublin like Sobibór, and temporarily closed during anepidemic of typhus, was reopened in March 1942 for Operation Reinhard; first, as a storage depot for valuables stolen from the victims of gassing at the killing centers of Belzec, Sobibór, and Treblinka,[138]It became a place of extermination of large Jewish populations from south-eastern Poland (Kraków,Lwów,Zamość,Warsaw) after the gas chambers were constructed in late 1942.[139]The gassing of Polish Jews was performed in plain view of other inmates, without as much as a fence around the killing facilities.[140]According to witness\'s testimony, \"to drown the cries of the dying, tractor engines were run near the gas chambers\" before they took the dead away to the crematorium. Majdanek was the site of death of 59,000 Polish Jews (from among its 79,000 victims).[141][142]By the end of OperationHarvest Festivalconducted at Majdanek in early November 1943 (the single largest German massacre of Jews during the entire war),[73]the camp had only 71 Jews left.[143]Armed resistance and ghetto uprisings[edit]Further information:Ghetto uprising,Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, andJewish resistance in German-occupied EuropeThere is a popular misconception among the general public that most Jews went to their deaths passively.[144]Nothing could be further from the truth. Jewish resistance to the Nazis comprised not only their armed struggle but also spiritual and cultural opposition which gave the Jews dignity despite the inhumane conditions of life in the ghettos.[145]Many forms of resistance were present, even though the elders were terrified by the prospect of mass retaliation against the women and children in the case of anti-Nazi revolt.[146]As the German authorities undertook to liquidate the ghettos, armed resistance was offered in over 100 locations on either side of Polish-Sovietborder of 1939, overwhelmingly in eastern Poland.[147]The uprisings erupted in 5 major cities, 45 provincial towns, 5 major concentration and extermination camps, as well as in at least 18 forced labor camps.[148]Notably, the only rebellions inNazi campswere Jewish.[144]TheNieświeżGhetto insurgents in eastern Poland fought back on July 22, 1942. TheŁachwa Ghettorevolt erupted on September 3rd. On October 14, 1942, theMizocz Ghettofollowed suit. TheWarsaw Ghettofirefightof January 18, 1943, led to thelargest Jewish uprising of World War IIlaunched on April 19, 1943. On June 25th, the Jews of theCzęstochowa Ghettorose up. AtTreblinka, theSonderkommandoprisoners armed with stolen weapons attacked the guards on August 2, 1943. A day later, theBędzinandSosnowiecghetto revolts broke out. On August 16th, theBiałystok Ghetto uprisingerupted. Therevolt in Sobibórextermination camp occurred on October 14, 1943. AtAuschwitz-Birkenau, the insurgents blew up one of Birkenau’s crematoria on October 7, 1944.[147][148]Similar resistance was offered inŁuck,Mińsk Mazowiecki,Pińsk,Poniatowa, and inWilno.[149]Poles and the Jews[edit]Further information:Polish Righteous Among the Nations,Rescue of Jews by Poles during the Holocaust,Collaboration during World War II §Poland, andPolish death camp controversyGerman Nazi poster announcing the death penalty for any Pole giving help to Jews (Warsaw, 1942).The relations between Poles and Jews during World War II present one of the sharpest paradoxes of the Holocaust. Only 10 percent of Poland\'s Jews survived the genocide, less than in any other country; and yet, Poland accounts for the majority of rescuers with the title of \'Righteous Among the Nations\', i.e. people who risked their lives to save Jews. The Poles honored byYad Vashemare a fraction of the true number of deserving individuals and: \"so far represent only the tip of the iceberg,\" according toPaulsson.[150]The nature of this paradox was debated by historians on both sides for more than fifty years often with preconceived notions andselective evidence.[150]Many Jews, persecuted by the Germans, received help from the Poles; help, ranging from major acts of heroism, to minor acts of kindness involving hundreds of thousands of helpers acting often anonymously. This rescue effort occurred even though (since October 1941) ethnic Poles themselves were the subject tocapital punishmentat the hands of the Nazis if found offering any kind of help to a person of Jewish faith or origin (Poland was the only country in German-occupied Europe in which such a death penalty was applied).[150][151]On November 10, 1941, the death penalty was expanded byHans Frankto apply to Poles who helped Jews \"in any way: by taking them in for the night, giving them a lift in a vehicle of any kind\" or \"feed[ing] runaway Jews or sell[ing] them foodstuffs.\" The law was made public by posters distributed in all major cities.Capital punishmentof entire families, for aiding Jews, was the most draconian such Nazi practice against any nation in occupied Europe.[152][153][154]In total, some 30,000 Poles were executed by the Nazis for hiding them.[155][156]Over 700 Polish Righteous among the Nations received their award posthumously, having been murdered by the Germans for aiding or sheltering their Jewish neighbors.[157]Many of thePolish Righteousawarded byYad Vashemcame from the capital. In his work on the Jews of Warsaw,Gunnar S. Paulssonhas demonstrated that despite the much harsher conditions, Polish citizens of Warsaw managed to support and hide the same percentage of Jews as did the citizens of cities in reportedlysafercountries of Western Europe.[158]Difficulties in rescue attempts[edit]Children of theWarsaw GhettoToward the end of the ghetto liquidation period, the largest number of Jews managed to escape to the \'Aryan\' side,[150]and to survive with the assistance of their Polish neighbors. In general, during the German occupation most Poles were engaged in a desperate struggle for survival. They were in no position to oppose or impede the German extermination of the Jews. There were however many Poles risking death to hide Jewish families and in various ways assist the Jews on compassionate grounds. It is estimated that hundreds of thousands, or even a million Poles, aided their Jewish neighbors.[5][159]The number of Polish Jews kept in hiding by non-Jewish Poles was around 450,000.[5]To put these numbers in perspective, three and a half million Jews lived in Poland before the war, out of a total population in Poland of about 27 million people.[5]Polish Jews were a \'visible minority\' by modern standards, distinguishable by language, behavior and appearance.[150]For hundreds of thousands of them thePolish languagewas barely familiar.[160]According to Polish census of 1931 only 12% of Jews listed Polish as their first language while 79% of them declared Yiddish and the remaining 9% Hebrew as the mother-tongue.[161]By contrast, the overwhelming majority of German-born Jews of this period spoke German as their first language. The presence of such large non-Christian, mostly non acculturated minority in prewar Poland,[162]was a source of competitive tension, and periodically of violence between Poles and Jews. Here is where the temptation to jump to conclusions with regard to Holocaust rescue comes into play according to Gunnar Paulsson.[150]As elsewhere in Europe during theinterwarperiod, there was both official and popularanti-Semitism in Poland, at times encouraged by theCatholic Churchand by some political parties (particularly the right-wingendecjafaction), but not directly by the government. There were also political forces in Poland which opposed anti-Semitism, particularly centered around the tolerant Polish dictator,Józef Piłsudski. In the late 1930s after Piłsudski\'s death, reactionary and anti-Semitic elements gained ground.[163]Nonetheless, \"leaving aside acts of war and Nazi perfidy, a Jew\'s chances of survival in hiding were no worse in Warsaw, at any rate, than in the Netherlands,\"[150]once the Holocaust began.Public execution of ethnic Poles inPrzemyślas punishment for helping Jews, 1943Further information:Rescue of Jews by Polish communities during the HolocaustPoland wasoccupied by the Nazisfrom 1939 to 1945 and no Polishcollaboration governmentwas ever formed during that period.[164]ThePolish Government in Exilewas the first (in November 1942)[165]to reveal the existence of Nazi-run concentration camps and the systematic extermination of the Jews by the Germans, reported by its courierJan Karskiand the activities ofWitold Pilecki, a member of Armia Krajowa who volunteered to be imprisoned inAuschwitzin order to organize a resistance movement inside the camp itself. In September 1942 the Provisional Committee for Aid to Jews (Tymczasowy Komitet Pomocy Żydom) was founded with assistance from the Underground State and on the initiative ofZofia Kossak-Szczucka. This body later became the Council for Aid to Jews (Rada Pomocy Żydom), known by the code-nameŻegota. It is not known how many Jews were helped by Żegota, but at one point in 1943 it had 2,500 Jewish children under its care inWarsawalone. Żegota was granted nearly 29 million zlotys (over $5 million) since 1942 for the relief payments to thousands of extended Jewish families in Poland.[166]The government in exile also provided special assistance – funds, arms and other supplies – toJewish resistance Underground Statestrongly opposed collaboration in anti-Jewish persecutions and threatened with death the informers against them, on behalf of the Polish military tribunals of theHome Army(Armia Krajowa).[168]In some cases, the Germans across Europe were able to exploit the local populace\'s anti-Semitism, and Poland was no exception. In occupied Polanddeath was a standard punishmentfor a Polish person with family and neighbors,[169]for any help given to Jews, one of the many coercive techniques used by Germans.[152]Some persons betrayed hidden Jews to the Germans, others made money as extortionists (szmalcownik),blackmailingJewsin hiding andPoleswho protected them.[170]Estimates of the number of Polish collaborators vary. The lower estimate of seven thousand is based primarily on the sentences of theSpecial Courtsof thePolish Underground State, sentencing individuals fortreasonto the nation; the highest estimate of about one million,[171]includes all Polish citizens who in some way contributed to the German activities, such as: low-ranking Polish bureaucrats employed in German administration, members of theBlue Police,construction workers,slave laborers in German-run factories and farmsand similar others (notably the highest figure originates from a single statistical table of outdated scholarship with a very thin source base).[172]Relatively little active collaboration by individual Poles – with any aspect of the German presence in Poland – took place. All Nazi propaganda efforts to recruit Poles in either labor or auxiliary roles were met with almost no interest, due to the everyday reality of German occupation. The non-German auxiliary workers in the extermination camps, for example, were mostly Ukrainians and Balts. John Connelly quoted a Polish historian (Leszek Gondek) calling the phenomenon of Polish collaboration \"marginal\" and stated \"only relatively small percentage of Polish population engaged in activities that may be described as collaboration when seen against the backdrop of European and world history\".[172]The uniquePolish Underground Stateconsideredszmalcownictwoan act ofcollaborationwith the enemy, and with the aid of its military arm, theArmia Krajowa, punished it with the judicatory death sentence. Up to 10,000 Poles were tried by Polish underground courts for assisting the enemy, and 2,500 were executed.[171]Role of national minorities[edit]Part ofa seriesof articles on theHistory of Jews andJudaism in PolandHistory of the Jews in Poland20th centuryThe Holocaust in occupied PolandJewish ghettos in German-occupied PolandNazi campsJewish resistance under Nazi ruleGhetto uprisingsRescue of Jews byPoles during the HolocaustPolish Righteous Among the Nations1989–presentTimeline of Jewish-Polish historyList of Polish JewsvteThe Republic of Poland was a multicultural country before the Second World War broke out, with almost a third of its population originating from the minority groups: 13.9% Ukrainians; 10% Jews; 3.1% Belarusians; 2.3% Germans and 3.4% Czechs, Lithuanians and Russians.[173]Soon after the 1918 reconstitution of an independent Polish state, about 500,000 refugees from the Soviet republics came to Poland in the first spontaneous flight from persecution especially in Ukraine (see,Pale of Settlement) where up to 2,000 pogroms took place during the Civil War.[174]In the second wave of immigration, between November 1919 and June 1924 some 1,200,000 people left the territory of the USSR for new Poland. It is estimated that some 460,000 refugees spoke Polish as the first language.[173][175]Between 1933 and 1938, around 25,000German JewsfledNazi Germanyto sanctuary in Poland.[176]Following the Nazi-Soviet invasion of 1939, many hundreds ofethnically German menliving in Poland joined the in May 1940 byGauleiterHans Frankstationing in occupiedKraków;[178]while the Ukrainian nationalists joined thepokhidny hrupy(pl)trained at the German bases in the General Government.[179]The existence ofSonderdienstconstituted a grave danger to the Catholic Poles who attempted to help ghettoised Jews in the cities which had a sizable German and pro-German minorities, as in the case of theIzbica GhettoorŁuckand theMińsk Mazowiecki Ghettoamong numerous others. Anti-Semitic attitudes were particularly visible in the eastern provinces which had been occupied by the Russians following theSoviet invasionofKresy. Local people had witnessed the repressions against their own compatriots, and mass deportationsto Siberia,[13][180]conducted by theSoviet security apparatuswith some of the local Jews collaborating with them. Others assumed that, driven by vengeance,Jewish Communistshad been prominent in betraying the ethnically Polish or other victims.[181][182]Further information:Ponary massacre,Lviv pogroms, andŻydokomunaMany German-inspired massacres were carried out across occupied eastern Poland with the active participation of indigenous people. The guidelines for such massacres were formulated byReinhard Heydrich,[183]who ordered his officers to induce anti-Jewish pogroms on territories newly occupied by the German forces.[184][185]In the lead-up to the establishment of theWilno Ghettoin the fifth largest city of prewar Poland and aprovincial capital, Wilno,[186]German commandosand theLithuanian Auxiliary Police Battalionskilled more than 21,000 Jews during thePonary massacreof late 1941.[187]At the time, Wilno had only a smallLithuanian-speakingminority of about 6% of the city\'s population.[188]In the infamous series ofLviv pogromscommitted by the Ukrainian militants in the easterncity of Lwów(now, Ukraine), some 6,000 Polish Jews were murdered in the streets between June 30 and July 29, 1941 on top of 3,000 arrests and mass shootings byEinsatzgruppeC.[189][190]TheUkrainian People\'s Militiaformed byOUNwith the blessings of theSSspread terror to other locations throughoutKresy.[191]Jewish woman chased along Medova Street during theLviv pogromsof 1941Long before theTarnopol Ghettowas set up, and only two days after the arrival of the Wehrmacht, up to 2,000 Jews were killed in theprovincial capital of Tarnopol,[192]one-third of them by theUkrainian People\'s Militia.[193]Some of the victims have been decapitated.[194]The SS shot the remaining two-thirds, in the same week.[193]InStanisławów– another provincial capital in the Kresymacroregion– thesingle largest massacreof Polish Jews prior toAktion Reinhardtwas perpetrated hand in glove byOrpo,SiPoand theUkrainian Auxiliary Police(brought in fromLwów) on 12 October 1941; tables with sandwiches and bottles of vodka had been set up about the cemetery for shooters who needed to rest from the deafening noise of gunfire; 12,000 Jews were murdered before nightfall.[195]A total of 31 deadly pogroms were carried out throughout the region in conjunction withBelarusian,Lithuanianand UkrainianSchuma.[196]Further east, during themassacre in Jedwabne, over 300 Jews died (Institute of National Remembrance\'s Final Findings),[197]burned alive in a barn set on fire by a group of Polish men in the presence of GermanOrdnungspolizei. The circumstances surrounding the events in Jedwabne are still debated, and include the ominous presence of theEinsatzgruppe Schaperdeployed inBezirk Bialystok,[198][199]as well as German Nazi pressure,anti-Semitism, but also resentment over Jewish cooperation with the Soviet invaders during thePolish-Soviet Warof 1920 as well as the alleged Jewish participation in anti-Polish terror followingSoviet 1939 invasionofKresyin accordance with theNazi-Soviet Pact.[200]Some members of ultra-nationalist National Armed Forces (NSZ, orNarodowe Siły Zbrojne),[201][202]participated in executions of Jews during wartime, according toStefan Korboński.[203]Other NSZ units rendered assistance to them and included Jews in their ranks as well asPolish Righteous Among the Nations.[204]The NSZ Holy Cross Brigade rescued 280 Jewish women among some 1,000 persons from the concentration camp inHolýšov. A Jewish partisan from NSZ, Feliks Parry, suggested that most of them \"didn\'t have the slightest notion of the ideological underpinnings of their organization\" and didn\'t care, focused only on resisting the Nazis.[205]In postwar Poland, thecommunist secret policeroutinely tortured the NSZ insurgents in order to force them to confess to killing Jews among other alleged crimes. This was most notably the case with the 1946 trial of 23 officers of the NSZ in Lublin. The torture ofpolitical prisonersby the Ministry of Public Security did not stop automatically when the interrogations were concluded. Physical torture was also ordered if they retracted in court their confessions of \"killing Jews\".[206]In 1946, over a year after the end of the war, 40 Jews and 2 ethnic Poles were killed in theKielce pogrom,[207]including 11 stabbed with bayonets and 11 more fatally shot with military assault rifles (official findings), indicating direct involvement of the Stalinist troops;[207]therefore, promptingGen. SpychalskiofPWPfrom wartime Warsaw,[208]to sign a legislative decree allowing the remaining survivors to leave Poland without visas or exit permits.[209]Poland was the onlyEastern Bloccountry to do so upon the conclusion of World WarII.[210]Consequently, the Jewish emigration from Poland increased dramatically.[211]Britain demanded from Poland (among others) to halt the Jewish exodus, but their pressure was largely unsuccessful.[212]The massacre in Kielce was condemned by a public announcement sent by the diocese in Kielce to all churches. The letter denounced the pogrom and\"stressed that the most important Catholic values were the love of fellow human beings and respect for human life. It also alluded to the demoralizing effect of anti-Jewish violence, since the crime was committed in the presence of youth and children.\"Priests read it without comments duringMass,\"[h]inting that the pogrom might have in fact been a political provocation.\"[213]Rate of survival[edit]The exact number of Holocaust survivors is unknown. About 300,000 Polish Jews escaped to the Soviet-occupied zone soon after the war started, where many of them perished at the hands ofOUN-UPA,TDAandYpatingasis būrysduringMassacres of Poles in Volhynia, theHolocaust in Lithuania(seePonary massacre), andBelarus,[2][3]but most Polish Jews in theGeneralgouvernementstayed put. Prior to the mass deportations, there was no proven necessity to leave familiar places. When the ghettos were closed from the outside, smuggling of food kept most of the inhabitants alive. Escape into clandestine existence on the \"Aryan\" side was attempted by some 100,000 Jews, and, contrary to popular misconceptions, the risk of them being turned in by the Poles was very small.[150]The question regarding the Jewish real chances of survival once the Holocaust began continues to draw attention of historians.[150]For one, the Germans made it extremely difficult to escape the ghettos just before \"resettlement\" to the death camps. All passes were cancelled, walls rebuilt containing fewer gates, with policemen replaced by SS-men. Some victims already deported to Treblinka were forced to write dictated letters back home, stating that they were safe. Around 3,000 others fell into the GermanHotel Polskitrap. Many ghettoized Jews did not believe what was going on until the very end, because the actual outcome seemed unthinkable at the time.[150]David J. Landausuggested also that the weak Jewish leadership might have played a role.[214]Likewise,Israel Gutmanproposed that the Polish Underground might have attacked the camps and blown up the railway tracks leading to them, but as noted by Paulsson, such ideas are a product of hindsight.[150]The burningSłonim Ghettoduring the Jewish revolt which erupted in the course of the final Ghetto extermination action. Before the joint Nazi-Soviet invasion of Polandin 1939 Słonim was a county seat in theNowogródek Voivodeship. The invading Soviets annexed the city to theByelorussian SSRin an atmosphere of terror.[17]It is estimated that about 350,000 Polish Jews survived the Holocaust. Some 230,000 of them survived in the Soviet territory,[215]including eastern half of Poland annexed after the 1939 invasion. Soon after the war ended, some 180,000 to 200,000 Jews took advantage of the repatriation agreement meant to ratify the new borders between Poland and the USSR. The number of Jews in the country changed dramatically, with many Jews passing through on their way to the West. Poland was the onlyEastern Bloccountry to allow free JewishaliyahtoMandate Palestine,[216]with Stalin\'s vexed approval,[217]seeking to undermine British influence in the Middle East. In January 1946, there were 86,000 survivors registered atCentral Committee of Polish Jews(CKŻP). By the end of summer, the number had risen to about 205,000–210,000 (with 240,000 registrations and over 30,000 duplicates). Most refugees crossing the new borders left Poland without Western visas or Polish exit permits.[210]Uninterrupted traffic across the Polish borders intensified.[217][218]By the spring of 1947 only 90,000 Jews remained in Poland.[219][220][221]Gunnar S. Paulssonestimated that 30,000 Jews survived in the labor camps and up to 50,000 in the forests and among soldiers who returned with the pro-Soviet Polish\"Berling army\"formed by Stalin ahead of his advance into Germany. The number of Jews who successfully hid on the \"Aryan\" side individually could be as high as 50,000 according to Paulsson\'s estimates. Many did not register themselves after the war, as was the case with Jewish children hidden by non-Jewish Poles and the Church.[150]The survival rate among the ghetto escapees was relatively high given the severity of German measures designed to prevent this occurrence, and by far, these individuals were the most successful.[150][222]Holocaust memorials and commemoration[edit]Museum of the History of the Polish Jewsin Warsaw, April 2013There is a large number of memorials in Poland dedicated to the Holocaust remembrance.Monument to the Ghetto Heroesin Warsaw was unveiled in April 1948. Major museums include theAuschwitz-Birkenau State Museumon the outskirts ofOświęcimwith 1.4 million visitors per year, and thePOLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jewsin Warsaw on the site of the former Ghetto, presenting the thousand-year history of the Jews in Poland.[223][224]Since 1988, an annual international event calledMarch of the Livingtakes place in April at the formerAuschwitz-Birkenaucamp complex on the Holocaust Remembrance Day, with the total attendance exceeding 150,000 youth from all over the world.[225]There are state museums on the grounds of each death camp of Operation Reinhard including theMajdanek State Museumin Lublin, declared a national monument as first in 1946 with intact gas chambers and crematoria from World War II. Branches of the Majdanek Museum include the Bełżec, and theSobibór Museumswhere advanced geophysical studies are being conducted by the Israeli and Polish archaeologists.[226]The newTreblinkaMuseum opened in 2006. It was later expanded and made into a branch of theSiedlceRegional Museum located in a historicRatusz(see also theSiedlce Ghetto).[227][228] 3097